Social relations and female farmers' participation in the learning activities of two farmer field schools in Cambodia | |
| Author | Ogawa, Yoshiko |
| Call Number | AIT Diss. no.GD-07-03 |
| Subject(s) | Farmers--Cambodia--Social conditions Rural women--Cambodia--Social conditions Women farmers--Cambodia |
| Note | A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Gender and Development Studies, School of Environment, Resources and Development |
| Publisher | Asian Institute of Technology |
| Series Statement | Dissertation ; no. GD-07-03 |
| Abstract | Recognition of power differences between actors and the interconnectedness of knowledge and power in the field of rural development has brought to light that agricultural education and extension is a dynamic process of knowledge generation and dissemination. Farmers are envisaged as the main actors of the process while trainers and extension staff function as facilitators. However, how active participation of all farmers is realized, especially that of women farmers, still needs investigation. The Farmer Field School (FFS) approach aims to facilitate farmers' learning of the agro-ecological environment and development of analytical and decision making skills so that they can make an informed decision on farm management on their own. Thus, it is expected that its education orientation has a positive effect on female farmers in terms of acquisition of learning skills and improvement in self-perception. Previous FFS studies report positive outcomes such as improved self-perception and social status of women, and knowledge gain. How such positive outcomes emerged is inadequately researched in studies both on FFS and agricultural extension and education in general. Since no social interactions take place in a socio-cultural vacuum, the processes of FFSs are expected to be influenced by social relations between actors. Social relations are a function of social structures and bridge social structures and everyday life of individuals. This study investigates two FFSs in Cambodia in order to understand how social relations, especially gender relations, affect the processes of FFSs. Bourdieu's theory of habitus is employed to explain the relationship between social structures and individual actors' perceptions and behaviors. Social structures shape the thoughts of individuals and limit their options of action. On their part, individuals reshape the social structures, either by reinforcing or transforming them. This study is an attempt to capture this mutually constitutive interaction between the social structures and individuals' perceptions and behaviors within the processes of FFSs. In its presentation of the processes of learning activities of the FFSs, namely interactions between different actors who have different interests and resources, this study takes women as social actors, who act on events and their environment, aiming to offer insights for implementation of agricultural education and extension activities sensitive to the factors of social differentiation such as gender. It is hoped that this study contributes to realization of the potential of agricultural education and extension programs in enabling Cambodian rural women to gain knowledge and power. Field work was conducted twice: from June to November in 2003 and ten days in July 2004. The FFSs were observed from the beginning to the end. Other field data were obtained through interviews of participating farmers, non-participants, trainers and key persons, group discussions among participating farmers and nonparticipants, and informal daily interaction in the villages. The observation and interview data have demonstrated that individuals' social relations and conditions frame the interactions of male and female farmers. In the learning activities, several patterns of participation were identified. In brief, those who were in established positions in the community, both women and men, were active in whole group discussions. They asked more questions than others and were heard by the trainers. In particular, older male participants with higher education levels and several power bases had a stronger voice and exercised influence. Other participants, such as younger male participants and older illiterate male participants, also spoke and participated in the whole group discussion, but to a lesser extent. The factor that most affected participation in small group activities was the individuals' education levels. Literate participants tended to monopolize group activities. Younger participants with better education were active in group activities, though quiet in the whole group. Women farmers, both middle-aged and older women, with low education levels and a weak position in the community, were barely active, either in the whole group discussions or group activities. Even when they dared to speak, their voices tended to be ignored. As a whole, women are disadvantaged compared with men. Women are often unable to acquire the power bases which influential males enjoy, because of existing gender relations. Normative gender relations, internalized in actors' perceptions and action, restrict female farmers' education opportunities, mobility and social networks, and adversely influence their participation in learning activities of the FFSs. The relationship between the trainers and farmers also influenced interactions within the learning activities. The trainers and farmers put themselves in hierarchical relations. Although lively interactions often took place between the trainers and farmers in one of the two FFSs, the learning activities were often a one-way communication from the trainers to the farmers. The trainers did not recognize gender inequality as having a negative effect on female farmers. The interactions among the actors in the FFSs largely conformed to and reproduced existing social relations. Farmers, however, do not just passively accept the current situation. They exercise their agency in multiple ways, depending on each person's material and socio-cultural conditions. Their actions, in tum, have the potential to transform social relations, which is presented in the cases of a few farmers in this study. There is a complex interaction between social relations and individuals' action. Therefore, in order for implementation of FFSs to attain active participation and resulting empowerment of disadvantaged female farmers, the FFS needs to carefully deal with unequal social relations in various aspects of its implementation. |
| Year | 2007 |
| Corresponding Series Added Entry | Asian Institute of Technology. Dissertation ; no. GD-07-03 |
| Type | Dissertation |
| School | School of Environment, Resources, and Development (SERD) |
| Department | Department of Development and Sustainability (DDS) |
| Academic Program/FoS | Gender and Development Studies (GD) |
| Chairperson(s) | Kusakabe, Kyoko; |
| Examination Committee(s) | Resurreccion, Bernadette P. ;Thapa, Gopal B. ;Jiggins, Janice Lesly Sneath ; |
| Degree | Thesis (Ph.D.) - Asian Institute of Technology, 2007 |